History of Luxembourg Timeline

Famous visitors to Luxembourg in the 18th and 19th centuries included the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the French writers Émile Zola and Victor Hugo, the Hungarian composer Franz Liszt, and the English painter Joseph Mallord William Turner.

Image source: History of Luxembourg

The Brandenburger claim ultimately produced results when some districts of Luxembourg were united with Prussia in 1813 to strengthen the Prussian-possessed Duchy of Jülich — the second partitioning of Luxembourg.

Luxembourg initially came under the Generalgouvernement Mittelrhein in mid-1814, and then from June 1814 under the Generalgouvernement Nieder- und Mittelrhein (General Government Lower and Middle Rhine).

Image source: Blieskastel

The Congress of Vienna of 1815 gave formal autonomy to Luxembourg, transforming it into a Grand Duchy in personal union with the Netherlands. In the same year Luxembourg joined the German Confederation.

Image source: Congress of Vienna

In July 1819, a contemporary from Britain visited Luxembourg, and his journal offers some insights into life in the grand duchy at that time.

In 1820, Luxembourg made use of the metric system of measurement compulsory, modernising administration under Dutch-led union.

Except for the fortress and its immediate vicinity, Luxembourg was considered a province of the new Belgian state from 1830 to 1839.

Image source: Belgian Revolution

By the Treaty of London in 1839, the status of the grand duchy became fully sovereign and in personal union to the king of the Netherlands. The treaty resulted in the third partitioning of Luxembourg.

Image source: Treaty of London (1839)

The Catholic Church helped provide a sense of unique cultural identity, and as early as 1840 Luxembourg was granted its own diocese.

Image source: Archdiocese of Luxembourg

Luxembourg remained an underdeveloped agrarian country for most of the century. As a result, about one in five of the inhabitants emigrated to the United States between 1841 and 1891.

Recognising its economic position, the grand duke integrated Luxembourg into the German Customs Union (Zollverein) in 1842.

Image source: Zollverein

The crisis almost resulted in war between France and Prussia over Luxembourg, which became free of German control when the German Confederation was abolished at the end of the Seven Weeks' War in 1866. In 1867 Luxembourg's independence was confirmed after a turbulent period including civil unrest against plans to annex it to Belgium, Germany, or France.

Image source: Luxembourg Crisis

The growing tension brought about a conference in London from March to May 1867, in which the British served as mediators between France and Prussia. The resulting treaty guaranteed Luxembourg's neutrality and independence.

Image source: Treaty of London (1867)

Building on its own diocese granted in 1840, Luxembourg received a separate bishopric in 1870, strengthening the Catholic Church's role in national identity.

Luxembourg remained a possession of the kings of the Netherlands until the death of William III in 1890, when it passed to the House of Nassau-Weilburg due to the 1783 Nassau Family Pact and semi-Salic law, creating a separate ruling house.

Image source: Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

By the beginning of the 20th century, Luxembourg abandoned its cultural ties to Germany in favour of developing its own nationalism — writers such as Nicolas Ries elevated Luxembourgish to a literary language, and nationalist organisations such as the Letzeburger Nationalunio'n espoused anti-German and anti-French sentiments.

Image source: Luxembourgish

The proportion of the active population working in industry rose sharply in the early 20th century — from 18 percent in 1907 to 31 percent in 1935 — as steel production transformed Luxembourg's agrarian economy.

Image source: Economy of Luxembourg

Luxembourgish was confirmed as an official and separate language by the Education Law of 1912, which established it as a mandatory school subject.

Luxembourg's internationally recognised neutrality was violated in 1914 when it was occupied by German troops, although the government was left intact and Luxembourg was not incorporated into the German state. The occupation lasted until November 1918.

Image source: German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I

Shortly after the end of the occupation in November 1918, a referendum was held in 1919 wherein the public voted in favour of retaining the monarchy, closely affiliated with the Party of the Right and the Catholic Church.

Image source: 1919 Luxembourg referendum

On 16 December 1920, Luxembourg became a member of the League of Nations, marking its emergence onto the international stage.

Image source: League of Nations

Upon the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, the government of Luxembourg observed its neutrality and issued an official proclamation to that effect on 6 September 1939.

Image source: Neutral country

On 10 May 1940, a German invasion swept away the Luxembourgish government and monarchy into exile. They crossed into Portugal and travelled to the United States in two groups: on the USS Trenton from Lisbon to Baltimore in July 1940, and on the Pan American airliner Yankee Clipper in October 1940.

Image source: German invasion of Belgium (1940)

In October 1941, a census was administered including questions on jetzige Staatsangehörigkeit ('current citizenship'), Muttersprache ('mother tongue'), and Volkszugehörigkeit ('ethnicity'). Overwhelmingly, Luxembourgers answered in ways affirming their separate national identity.

Image source: Demographics of Luxembourg

Luxembourg remained under German military occupation until August 1942, when Nazi Germany formally annexed it as part of the Gau Moselland, justifying this by 'proclaiming' that Luxembourgers were ethnically and linguistically German. Forced draft of locals into the German army began the same year.

Image source: Gau Moselland

Executions took place after the general strike from 1 to 3 September 1942, which paralysed administration, agriculture, industry and education in response to the declaration of forced conscription by the German administration on 30 August 1942.

Image source: 1942 Luxembourgish general strike

Allied forces liberated most of the country in September 1944, entering the capital city on 10 September 1944, restoring the government-in-exile.

Image source: Luxembourg in World War II

Between December 1944 and February 1945, the recently liberated city of Luxembourg was targeted by OB West using V-3 siege guns originally intended for London. The bombardments ended with the American Army nearing Lampaden on 22 February 1945, and Allied forces finally expelled the Germans in January 1945.

Image source: V-3 cannon

The introduction of universal suffrage for men and women favoured the Rechtspartei (Party of the Right), which dominated government throughout the 20th century, except for 1925–26 and 1974–79 when Liberal and Social-Democratic coalitions governed.

In 1921, Luxembourg entered into an economic and monetary union with Belgium. During most of the 20th century, however, Germany remained its most important economic partner.

Image source: Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union

A controversial law targeting political opponents was turned down in a 1937 referendum, reflecting public resistance to authoritarian measures on the eve of war.

Image source: 1937 Luxembourg political parties referendum

Luxembourg constituted a customs union with Belgium in 1948 and an economic union with Belgium and the Netherlands — the so-called BeNeLux — rebuilding its post-war economy through regional cooperation.

Image source: Benelux

In the context of the Cold War, Luxembourg clearly opted for the West, having joined NATO in 1949.

Image source: NATO

Luxembourg was one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952, cementing its role at the heart of European integration.

Image source: European Coal and Steel Community

Luxembourg signed the Treaty of Rome, becoming a founding member of the European Economic Community (later the European Union) in 1957.

Image source: Treaty of Rome

Between 1945 and 2005, Luxembourg's economic structure changed significantly. Its financial sector gained importance at the end of the 1960s, and by the early 21st century Luxembourg enjoyed one of the highest GNI per capita in the world, mainly due to banking strength.

The decision in 1984 to declare Luxembourgish the national language was also a step in the affirmation of the country's independence.

Between 1984 and 1986, Luxembourg became victim to a mysterious bombing spree, targeted mostly at electrical masts and other installations, without claiming any lives.

Image source: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

In 1995, Prime Minister Jacques Santer was appointed president of the European Commission as a compromise candidate after Belgian PM Jean-Luc Dehaene's nomination was vetoed by John Major. Santer and his commission later had to resign in March 1999 over corruption accusations against some members.

Image source: Santer Commission

The creation of the Central Bank of Luxembourg in 1998 was evidence of the continuing desire for Luxembourg to become a 'real' nation.

Image source: Central Bank of Luxembourg

In 1999 Luxembourg joined the euro currency area, adopting the shared European currency alongside other founding eurozone members.

Image source: Euro

On 24 December 1999, Grand Duke Jean announced his decision to abdicate in favour of his son Henri, who had already served as regent since 4 March 1998.

Image source: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

Henri was sworn in as Grand Duke on 7 October 2000, ending the 36-year reign of Jean, over which Luxembourg had seen major transformations.

Image source: Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

The creation of the University of Luxembourg in 2003, alongside the Central Bank in 1998, evidenced the country's continuing desire to become a 'real' nation.

Image source: University of Luxembourg

On 10 September 2004, Jean-Claude Juncker became president of the group of finance ministers from the 12 eurozone countries, a role that led him to be dubbed 'Mr Euro'.

Image source: Jean-Claude Juncker

On 10 July 2005, after Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker threatened to resign in case of a 'no' victory, the proposed European Constitution was approved by 56.52% of voters in a referendum.

Image source: Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe

RTL and d'Lëtzebuerger Land alleged misconduct within the State Intelligence Service (SREL), including a covertly recorded 2008 conversation between Juncker and SREL head Marco Mille mentioning links between Grand Duke Henri, MI6 and the Bommelëer Affair.

Image source: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

After the LSAP pulled out of Juncker's coalition government on 10 July 2013, he announced his resignation and snap elections were organised.

Following the election, although Juncker's CSV remained largest, a DP-LSAP-Green coalition was formed, sending the CSV into opposition for the first time since 1979. The DP's Xavier Bettel was sworn in on 4 December 2013, succeeding Juncker — then the EU's longest-serving leader — and becoming the world's third openly gay head of government.

Image source: Xavier Bettel

In July 2014, the European Parliament elected Jean-Claude Juncker as President of the European Commission, making him the third Luxembourger to hold the post. He succeeded José Manuel Barroso on 1 November 2014.

Image source: Juncker Commission

Following the narrow victory of his liberal-led coalition in the 2018 general election, Xavier Bettel was sworn in for a second term in December 2018.

Grand Duke Jean died on 23 April 2019 at age 98, followed by a 12-day period of national mourning and a funeral at Luxembourg Cathedral.

On 29 February 2020, the Bettel II Government implemented free public transport across Luxembourg, making it the first country in the world to implement the measure nationwide.

Image source: Transport in Luxembourg

The October 2023 general election saw a sharp electoral defeat for the Greens, which failed to compensate for DP and LSAP gains, leading to the Bettel II Government losing its majority.

Image source: 2023 Luxembourg general election