Great Zimbabwe Timeline

Dated finds such as Chinese, Persian and Syrian artefacts also support the 12th- and 15th-century dates, indicating settlement in at least the 5th century, with continuous settlement between the 12th and 15th centuries and the bulk of finds from the 15th century.

The construction of Great Zimbabwe is also claimed by the Lemba, as documented by William Bolts in 1777 in his report to the Austrian Habsburg authorities.

Image source: Lemba people

Some of the carvings had been taken from Great Zimbabwe around 1890 and sold to Cecil Rhodes, who was intrigued and had copies made which he gave to friends.

Image source: Zimbabwe Bird

J. Theodore Bent, who had no formal archaeological training but had travelled widely in Greece and Asia Minor and excavated the Mounds of A'ali in Bahrain in 1889, investigated Great Zimbabwe alongside R. M. W. Swan (1858–1904), who also surveyed related stone ruins nearby.

Image source: James Theodore Bent

Bent stated in the first edition of his book The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (1892) that the ruins revealed either the Phoenicians or the Arabs as builders, and he favoured the possibility of great antiquity for the fortress.

Image source: Mashonaland

In the Preface to his second edition (1893) Bent was more specific, with his primary theory being 'a Semitic race and of Arabian origin' of 'strongly commercial' traders living within a client African city — one of many fantastical theories later refuted.

Throughout the 20th century, the historiography of Great Zimbabwe was dominated by the refutation of various fantastical and dehumanising theories ascribing the construction to Jews, Arabs, Phoenicians, and anyone but the Shona, along with other activities of the antiquarians.

In 1902, during the colonial period, the Great Zimbabwe Hotel was constructed in order to provide accommodation for Rhodesians and other Europeans who were visiting the Great Zimbabwe Monuments.

Image source: Great Zimbabwe

The first scientific archaeological excavations at the site were undertaken by David Randall-MacIver for the British Association in 1905–1906, providing crucial evidence about the site's African origins.

Carl Peters collected a ceramic ushabti at Great Zimbabwe in 1905, an artefact that fuelled speculative theories linking the ruins to ancient Egypt, if not a relic of an old Egyptian station near the local gold mines.

Image source: Carl Peters

Damage to the ruins has taken place throughout the last century, threatening the preservation of this World Heritage site.

In mid-1929, Gertrude Caton Thompson concluded, after a twelve-day visit of a three-person team and the digging of several trenches, that the site was indeed created by Bantu peoples.

Image source: Gertrude Caton Thompson

Caton Thompson's most important contribution was in helping to confirm the theory of a medieval origin for the masonry work of the 14th and 15th centuries.

By 1931, Caton Thompson had modified her Bantu theory somewhat, allowing for a possible Arabian influence for the towers through the imitation of buildings or art seen at coastal Arabian trading cities.

The radiocarbon evidence is a suite of 28 measurements, for which all but the first four, from the early days of the use of that method and now viewed as inaccurate, support the 12th-to-15th-centuries chronology of continuous settlement.

In 1952, early radiocarbon dating produced some anomalous dates for Great Zimbabwe; these early measurements were later viewed as inaccurate, though they caused confusion for decades.

In the 1970s, a beam that produced some of the anomalous dates in 1952 was reanalysed and gave a 14th-century date, supporting the established chronology of the site.

In 1980 the new internationally recognised independent country was renamed for the site, and its famous soapstone bird carvings were retained from the Rhodesian flag and Coat of Arms as a national symbol and depicted in the new Zimbabwean flag.

Image source: Zimbabwe

Reconstruction attempts since 1980 caused further damage, leading to alienation of the local communities from the site.

After the creation of the modern state of Zimbabwe in 1980, Great Zimbabwe has been employed to mirror and legitimise shifting policies of the ruling regime.

In the early 21st century, the government of Zimbabwe endorsed the creation of a university in the vicinity of the ruins, later known as Great Zimbabwe University.

Image source: Great Zimbabwe University

The growth of Great Zimbabwe has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe.

Image source: Kingdom of Mapungubwe

Great Zimbabwe became a centre for trading, having replaced Mapungubwe around 1300, connecting the interior of southern Africa to Indian Ocean commerce.

Archeological evidence shows that some of the imported ceramics included Longquan green-glazed stoneware and blue-and-white porcelain that dates back to the 14th and 15th centuries, testifying to long-distance trade networks.

From the early 15th century, international trade began to decline amid a global economic downturn, reducing demand for gold, which adversely affected Great Zimbabwe's economy.

By the late 15th century, the consequences of economic decline began to manifest, as offshoots from Great Zimbabwe's royal family formed new dynasties, possibly as a result of losing succession disputes.

By the 16th century, political and economic power had shifted away from Great Zimbabwe to the north and west, marking the end of its dominance in the region.

Records indicate that there were always some of Benomotapa's wives therein, of whom Symbacayo took care. Thus, Great Zimbabwe appears to have still been inhabited as recently as the early 16th century.

Major construction ended by the 15th century, and the site was abandoned in the 16th or 17th century. The site likely continued to be inhabited into the 17th century, before it was eventually abandoned.

Portuguese traders heard about the remains of the medieval city in the early 16th century, and records survive of interviews and notes made by some of them, linking Great Zimbabwe to gold production and long-distance trade.

In 1506, the explorer Diogo de Alcáçova described the edifices in a letter to Manuel I of Portugal, writing that they were part of the larger kingdom of Ucalanga, presumably Karanga, a dialect of the Shona people.

The first European visit may have been made by the Portuguese traveler António Fernandes in 1513–1515, who crossed twice and reported in detail the region of present-day Zimbabwe, including fortified centers in stone without mortar.

Zimbabwe is the Shona name of the ruins, first recorded in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala.

João de Barros left another description of Great Zimbabwe in 1538, as recounted to him by Moorish traders who had visited the area and possessed knowledge of the hinterland.

Image source: João de Barros

The ruins were rediscovered by Europeans during a hunting trip in 1867 by Adam Render, a German-American hunter, prospector and trader in southern Africa, who had been living with a local tribe.

Image source: Adam Render

In 1871 Adam Render showed the ruins to Karl Mauch, a German explorer and geographer of Africa. Investigations of the site by Europeans started in 1871, marking the beginning of formal European study of Great Zimbabwe.

Image source: Karl Mauch