History of Neuroscience Timeline

(1700 BCE - Present)

The history of neuroscience traces humanity's evolving understanding of the nervous system, spanning ancient anatomical observations, foundational discoveries about neurons and electrical signaling, and modern advances in brain imaging, molecular biology, and computational neuroscience. More Less

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Ancient and Medieval Foundations

Aristotle proposes the heart as the seat of intelligence

350 BC

In the 4th century BC, Aristotle thought that the heart was the seat of intelligence, while the brain was merely a cooling mechanism for the blood. This cardiocentric view dominated thinking about mental function for centuries.

Image source: Aristotle

Al-Zahrawi treats neurological patients in Islamic Iberia

1000

Circa 1000, Al-Zahrawi, living in Islamic Iberia, evaluated neurological patients and performed surgical treatments of head injuries, skull fractures, spinal injuries, hydrocephalus, subdural effusions and headache, advancing medieval neurosurgery.

Image source: Al-Zahrawi

First European anatomy textbooks describing the brain

1300 - 1400

Between the 13th and 14th centuries, the first anatomy textbooks in Europe, which included a description of the brain, were written by Mondino de Luzzi and Guido da Vigevano, laying groundwork for later anatomical study of the nervous system.

Image source: Mondino de Luzzi

First European anatomy textbooks describing the brain

Early Modern Discoveries

Descartes proposes dualism and studies brain physiology

1600 - 1700

In the 17th century, René Descartes studied the physiology of the brain, proposing the theory of dualism to tackle the issue of the brain's relation to the mind. His ideas sparked enduring philosophical debate about mind and body.

Image source: René Descartes

Galvani observes electricity in nerves using dissected frogs

1750 - 1800

The role of electricity in nerves was first observed in dissected frogs by Luigi Galvani, Lucia Galeazzi Galvani and Giovanni Aldini in the second half of the 18th century, founding the field of electrophysiology.

Image source: Luigi Galvani

19th Century Advances

Legallois defines a specific function of a brain region

1811

In 1811, César Julien Jean Legallois defined a specific function of a brain region for the first time, an early milestone in the localization of function within the brain.

Bell and Magendie discover spinal root functions

1811 - 1824

Between 1811 and 1824, Charles Bell and François Magendie discovered through dissection and vivisection that the ventral roots in the spine transmit motor impulses and the posterior roots receive sensory input, known as the Bell–Magendie law. Only in their work would the understanding of spinal function surpass that of Galen.

Image source: Bell–Magendie law

Matteucci and du Bois-Reymond demonstrate electrical nerve signals

1843

In 1843, Carlo Matteucci and Emil du Bois-Reymond demonstrated that nerve fibers transmitted electrical signals, confirming bioelectricity as the basis of neural communication.

Image source: Emil du Bois-Reymond

Matteucci and du Bois-Reymond demonstrate electrical nerve signals

Phineas Gage's frontal lobe pierced by iron rod

1848

In 1848, John Martyn Harlow described that Phineas Gage had his frontal lobe pierced by an iron tamping rod in a blasting accident. Gage's survival and personality changes provided famous evidence linking frontal lobe damage to behavior.

Image source: Phineas Gage

Helmholtz measures speed of nerve impulses

1850

Hermann von Helmholtz measured nerve impulse conduction speeds to travel at a rate between 24 and 38 meters per second in 1850, showing that nervous transmission was measurable and finite rather than instantaneous.

Image source: Hermann von Helmholtz

Broca examines patient with speech loss at Bicêtre Hospital

1861

In 1861, Paul Broca heard of a patient at the Bicêtre Hospital who had a 21-year progressive loss of speech and paralysis but neither a loss of comprehension nor mental function, leading to the identification of Broca's area.

Image source: Paul Broca

Broca publishes findings from twelve autopsies

1865

Broca published his findings from the autopsies of twelve patients in 1865, establishing that speech production was localized in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere.

Fritsch and Hitzig stimulate motor cortex; Jackson deduces its organization

1870 - 1879

Broca's hypothesis was supported by Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig who discovered in 1870 that electrical stimulation of motor cortex caused involuntary muscular contractions of specific parts of a dog's body, and by observations of epileptic patients conducted by John Hughlings Jackson, who correctly deduced in the 1870s the organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body.

Image source: Gustav Fritsch

Richard Caton presents findings on cerebral electrical phenomena

1875

Richard Caton presented his findings in 1875 about electrical phenomena of the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys, pioneering the study of brain electrical activity that would lead to electroencephalography.

Image source: Richard Caton

Munk localizes vision; Ferrier localizes audition; Cushing localizes touch

1878 - 1909

In 1878, Hermann Munk found in dogs and monkeys that vision was localized in the occipital cortical area, David Ferrier found in 1881 that audition was localized in the superior temporal gyrus, and Harvey Cushing found in 1909 that the sense of touch was localized in the postcentral gyrus, mapping sensory functions across the cortex.

Image source: Hermann Munk

Obersteiner founds the Neurological Institute in Vienna

1887

Heinrich Obersteiner in 1887 founded the Institute for Anatomy and Physiology of the CNS, later called the Neurological or Obersteiner Institute of the Vienna University School of Medicine, a major center for neurological training.

Image source: Heinrich Obersteiner

Obersteiner writes one of the first neuroanatomy textbooks

1888

Obersteiner studied the cerebellar cortex, described the Redlich–Obersteiner's zone and wrote one of the first books on neuroanatomy in 1888, helping systematize the study of nervous system structure.

Langley coins the term 'autonomic'

1898

In 1898, British scientist John Newport Langley first coined the term 'autonomic' in classifying the connections of nerve fibers to peripheral nerve cells, establishing the concept of the autonomic nervous system.

Image source: John Newport Langley

Gotch describes the refractory phase of nerve impulses

1899

Towards the end of the nineteenth century Francis Gotch conducted several experiments on nervous system function. In 1899 he described the 'inexcitable' or 'refractory phase' that takes place between nerve impulses, a key property of neuronal signaling.

Image source: Francis Gotch

$Gotch describes the refractory phase of nerve impulses$

20th Century Neuroscience

Pavlov invited to the Institute of Experimental Medicine

1891

In 1891, Pavlov was invited to the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg, where he would conduct his landmark research on physiology and conditioned reflexes.

Image source: Ivan Pavlov

Pavlov publishes The Work of the Digestive Glands

1897

Pavlov published The Work of the Digestive Glands in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Bárány graduates from the Obersteiner Institute

1900

Róbert Bárány, who worked on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus, attended the Obersteiner Institute school, graduating in 1900. He later won the Nobel Prize for his vestibular research.

Image source: Robert Bárány

Keith Lucas proves the all-or-none principle of muscle contraction

1900 - 1910

Keith Lucas' experiments in the first decade of the twentieth century proved that muscles contract entirely or not at all, a finding referred to as the all-or-none principle.

Bernstein hypothesizes membrane permeability change in action potentials

1902 - 1912

One major question for neuroscientists in the early twentieth century was the physiology of nerve impulses. In 1902 and again in 1912, Julius Bernstein advanced the hypothesis that the action potential resulted from a change in the permeability of the axonal membrane to ions.

Image source: Julius Bernstein

Lapicque proposes threshold model of action potential generation

1907

In 1907, Louis Lapicque suggested that the action potential was generated as a threshold was crossed, what would be later shown as a product of the dynamical systems of ionic conductances.

Image source: Louis Lapicque

Pavlov works with Alexandre Dogiel at Petersburg State Medical Academy

1907

Pavlov joined the Petersburg State Medical Academy in 1907 where he worked with Alexandre Dogiel, continuing his influential research program on higher nervous activity.

Brown develops early ideas about central pattern generators

1911

Sherrington also worked with Thomas Graham Brown, who developed one of the first ideas about central pattern generators in 1911, neural circuits capable of producing rhythmic motor patterns such as walking.

Image source: Thomas Graham Brown

Brown develops early ideas about central pattern generators

Dale identifies acetylcholine's actions on heart tissue

1915

Acetylcholine was first identified in 1915 by Henry Hallett Dale for its actions on heart tissue, marking the discovery of chemical neurotransmission's first candidate molecule.

Image source: Henry Hallett Dale

Loewi confirms acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter

1921

Acetylcholine was confirmed as a neurotransmitter in 1921 by Otto Loewi in Graz, through his famous experiment demonstrating chemical transmission between the vagus nerve and the heart.

Image source: Otto Loewi

Cole joins Columbia University to model nervous tissue properties

1937 - 1946

Kenneth Cole joined Columbia University in 1937 and remained there until 1946, where he made pioneering advances modelling the electrical properties of nervous tissue.

Image source: Kenneth Cole (designer)

Hodgkin joins Cole at the Rockefeller Institute

1937 - 1938

Alan Lloyd Hodgkin spent a year (1937–38) at the Rockefeller Institute, during which he joined Cole to measure the D.C. properties of nerve membrane, work foundational to understanding the action potential.

Image source: Alan Hodgkin

Squid giant axon experiments begin; Cole develops voltage clamp

1939 - 1947

In 1939 Hodgkin and colleagues began using internal electrodes inside the giant nerve fibre of the squid, and Cole developed the voltage clamp technique in 1947, enabling precise measurement of ionic currents underlying nerve impulses.

Image source: Voltage clamp

Goldman derives the Goldman equation at Columbia University

1943

Goldman worked with Cole and derived the Goldman equation in 1943 at Columbia University, describing how membrane potential depends on ion concentrations and permeabilities.

Penfield summarizes cortical mapping in The Cerebral Cortex of Man

1950

Wilder Penfield summarized his findings from cortical stimulation mapping of patients in a 1950 book called The Cerebral Cortex of Man, producing iconic maps of motor and sensory homunculi.

Image source: Wilder Penfield

Institute of Higher Nervous Activity established in Moscow

Jul 14, 1950

The Institute of Higher Nervous Activity in Moscow, Russia was established on July 14, 1950, becoming a center for research on the physiology of higher nervous activity in the Soviet Union.

Image source: Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology

FitzHugh and Nagumo develop excitable media models

1961 - 1962

In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo developed simplified mathematical models of excitable neurons, providing insight into the dynamics of action potentials without full ionic detail.

Image source: FitzHugh–Nagumo model

Katz models neurotransmission across synapses

1962

In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses, elucidating quantal release of neurotransmitters and earning him a Nobel Prize.

Image source: Bernard Katz

Modern Era

First official use of the word 'Neuroscience'

1962

The first official use of the word 'Neuroscience' may be in 1962 with Francis O. Schmitt, marking the emergence of neuroscience as a unified discipline. During the twentieth century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline rather than studies of the nervous system spread across many fields.

Image source: Neuroscience

First freestanding neuroscience department founded at UC Irvine

1964

The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology) was founded in 1964 at the University of California, Irvine by James L. McGaugh, institutionalizing neuroscience education and research.

Image source: University of California, Irvine

Kuffler starts Department of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School

1966

Stephen Kuffler started the Department of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School in 1966, creating one of the most influential centers for modern neurobiological research.

Image source: Stephen Kuffler

Kandel begins examining learning and memory in Aplysia

1966

Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in Aplysia, work that earned him the Nobel Prize and established molecular mechanisms of memory.

Image source: Eric Kandel

Morris and Lecar combine models into the Morris–Lecar model

1981

In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined earlier neuron models into the Morris–Lecar model, a widely used two-variable model of neuronal excitability.

Image source: Morris–Lecar model

Morris and Lecar combine models into the Morris–Lecar model

BRAIN Initiative announced in the US

2013

In 2013, the BRAIN Initiative was announced in the US, a large-scale federal research effort to accelerate the development of new technologies for mapping and understanding the human brain.

Image source: BRAIN Initiative

International Brain Initiative created

2017

An International Brain Initiative was created in 2017, currently integrated by more than seven national-level brain research initiatives (US, Europe, Allen Institute, Japan, China, Australia, Canada, Korea, Israel) spanning four continents, coordinating global brain research efforts.

Key Facts

The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus (c. 1700 BCE) contains the earliest known written reference to the brain.
In 1906, Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize for their work on the structure of the nervous system; Cajal's neuron doctrine established that neurons are individual cells.
Otto Loewi's 1921 experiment demonstrated chemical neurotransmission, proving that nerve impulses are transmitted via chemicals like acetylcholine.
The development of the EEG by Hans Berger in 1924 allowed scientists to record human brain activity non-invasively for the first time.
Modern techniques such as fMRI (1990) and optogenetics (2005) have revolutionized neuroscience by enabling real-time observation and precise control of neural circuits.

Source

This History of Neuroscience timeline was generated with the help of AI, using information found on the internet.

We work hard to keep these timelines accurate, but mistakes do get through. If you spot one, email us at [email protected] and we'll fix it for future visitors.

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