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History of Semiconductors Timeline

(1833 - Present)

The history of semiconductors traces the scientific discoveries, inventions, and industrial breakthroughs that transformed materials like silicon into the foundation of modern electronics. Beginning with early studies of material conductivity in the 1800s, the field advanced through the invention of the transistor in 1947, the integrated circuit in 1958, and the relentless miniaturization described by Moore's Law, ultimately enabling computers, smartphones, and countless digital technologies. Less

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Early Observations

Seebeck observes semiconductor effects

1821

Thomas Johann Seebeck was the first to notice that semiconductors exhibit special features, observing that experiments concerning the Seebeck effect produced much stronger results when applying semiconductor materials rather than metals.

Image source: Thomas Johann Seebeck

Seebeck observes semiconductor effects

Faraday reports resistance of silver sulfide decreases with heat

1833

In 1833, Michael Faraday reported that the resistance of specimens of silver sulfide decreases when they are heated, an unusual property contrasting with metals, and one of the earliest documented observations of semiconductor behavior.

Image source: Michael Faraday

Faraday reports resistance of silver sulfide decreases with heat

Rosenschöld reports rectification in metallic sulfides

1835

Peter Munck af Rosenschöld discovered rectification in metallic sulfides, writing for the Annalen der Physik und Chemie in 1835. His findings were largely ignored at the time, and the effect was later rediscovered by Karl Ferdinand Braun.

Image source: Karl Ferdinand Braun

Rosenschöld reports rectification in metallic sulfides

Becquerel observes the photovoltaic effect

1839

In 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel reported observation of a voltage between a solid and a liquid electrolyte when struck by light — the photovoltaic effect — laying early groundwork for solar energy technology.

Image source: Photovoltaic effect

Becquerel observes the photovoltaic effect

Willoughby Smith discovers photoconductivity of selenium

1873

In 1873, Willoughby Smith observed that selenium resistors exhibit decreasing resistance when light falls on them, a discovery of photoconductivity that enabled early light-sensing technologies.

Image source: Willoughby Smith

Willoughby Smith discovers photoconductivity of selenium

Braun observes conduction and rectification in metallic sulfides

1874

In 1874, Karl Ferdinand Braun observed conduction and rectification in metallic sulfides, building on earlier ignored findings by Peter Munck af Rosenschöld from 1835. This work underpinned the development of crystal detectors.

Schuster finds rectification in copper oxide wires

1874

Also in 1874, Arthur Schuster found that a copper oxide layer on wires had rectification properties that ceased when the wires were cleaned, another early demonstration of semiconductor rectifying behavior.

Image source: Arthur Schuster

Schuster finds rectification in copper oxide wires

Adams and Day observe photovoltaic effect in selenium

1876

William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day observed the photovoltaic effect in selenium in 1876, demonstrating that light could generate electricity in a solid material without moving parts or chemistry.

Image source: William Grylls Adams

Adams and Day observe photovoltaic effect in selenium

Hall demonstrates the Hall effect

1878

In 1878, Edwin Herbert Hall demonstrated the deflection of flowing charge carriers by an applied magnetic field, known as the Hall effect, which later became a key tool for studying charge carriers in semiconductors.

Image source: Hall effect

Hall demonstrates the Hall effect

Losev observes electroluminescence

1922

Oleg Losev observed light emission from semiconductor junctions in 1922, an early observation of electroluminescence, but at the time the effect had no practical use; it would later inspire LED development.

Image source: Oleg Losev

Losev observes electroluminescence

Early Devices

Braun's crystal detector uses galena

1874

The first semiconductor devices used galena, including German physicist Ferdinand Braun's crystal detector in 1874, which exploited the rectifying contact between a metal whisker and a semiconductor crystal.

Image source: Crystal detector

Braun's crystal detector uses galena

Bell invents the photophone using selenium

1880

Alexander Graham Bell used the light-sensitive property of selenium to transmit sound over a beam of light in 1880 with his photophone, an early practical exploitation of a semiconductor's optical properties.

Image source: Alexander Graham Bell

Bell invents the photophone using selenium

Fritts constructs first working solar cell

1883

In 1883, Charles Fritts constructed a working solar cell of low efficiency using a metal plate coated with selenium and a thin layer of gold. The device became commercially useful in photographic light meters in the 1930s.

Bose's radio crystal detector

1901

Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose developed a radio crystal detector in 1901 using galena, among the first practical applications of semiconductor devices for wireless communication.

Image source: Jagadish Chandra Bose

Bose's radio crystal detector

Bose uses lead sulfide microwave detectors

1904

Point-contact microwave detector rectifiers made of lead sulfide were used by Jagadish Chandra Bose in 1904, while the cat's-whisker detector became a common device in the development of radio.

Cat's-whisker detector developed

1904

The first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the cat's-whisker detector, a primitive semiconductor diode used in early radio receivers to demodulate signals.

Losev develops two-terminal negative resistance amplifiers

1922

In 1922, Oleg Losev developed two-terminal negative resistance amplifiers for radio, but he died in the Siege of Leningrad after successful completion of his work, before it could be widely recognized.

Lilienfeld patents field-effect transistor-like device

1926

In 1926, Julius Edgar Lilienfeld patented a device resembling a field-effect transistor, but it was not practical, predating by two decades the first working transistors at Bell Labs.

Image source: Julius Edgar Lilienfeld

Lilienfeld patents field-effect transistor-like device

Pohl demonstrates solid-state amplifier

1938

Pohl demonstrated a solid-state amplifier in 1938 using a structure resembling the control grid of a vacuum tube; although it displayed power gain, its cut-off frequency of one cycle per second was too low for practical use.

Image source: Semiconductor

Pohl demonstrates solid-state amplifier

Holden begins investigating solid-state amplifiers

1938

Holden started investigating solid-state amplifiers in 1938, part of growing pre-war research interest in replacing bulky vacuum tubes with semiconductor devices.

Theoretical Foundations

Thomson's electron discovery prompts conduction theories

1897

J. J. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897 prompted theories of electron-based conduction in solids, providing a foundation for understanding how electricity flows through materials like semiconductors.

Image source: J. J. Thomson

Thomson's electron discovery prompts conduction theories

Koenigsberger classifies solids as conductors, insulators, variable conductors

1914

Johan Koenigsberger classified solid materials like metals, insulators, and 'variable conductors' in 1914, although his student Josef Weiss had already introduced the term Halbleiter (semiconductor) in its modern meaning.

Image source: Semiconductor

Koenigsberger classifies solids as conductors, insulators, variable conductors

Bloch publishes theory of electron movement through lattices

1928

In 1928, Felix Bloch published a theory of the movement of electrons through atomic lattices, a cornerstone of quantum solid-state physics that explained electronic behavior in crystalline materials.

Image source: Felix Bloch

Bloch publishes theory of electron movement through lattices

Gudden links semiconductor conductivity to impurities

1930

In 1930, Bernhard Gudden stated that conductivity in semiconductors was due to minor concentrations of impurities, establishing the crucial concept of doping that underlies all modern semiconductor technology.

Wilson establishes band theory and band gaps

1931

By 1931, the band theory of conduction had been established by Alan Herries Wilson and the concept of band gaps had been developed, giving a unified explanation of the difference between metals, insulators, and semiconductors.

Image source: Alan Herries Wilson

Wilson establishes band theory and band gaps

Davydov develops copper-oxide rectifier theory

1938

By 1938, Boris Davydov had developed a theory of the copper-oxide rectifier, identifying the effect of the p–n junction and the importance of minority carriers and surface states.

Transistor Era

Ohl observes first p–n junction in silicon

1941

The first p–n junction in silicon was observed by Russell Ohl about 1941 when a specimen was found to be light-sensitive, with a sharp boundary between p-type impurity at one end and n-type at the other.

Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley invent point-contact transistor

1947

The first working transistor was a point-contact transistor invented by John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell Labs in 1947, a breakthrough made possible by advances in quantum physics and solid-state theory.

Image source: John Bardeen

Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley invent point-contact transistor

Tanenbaum fabricates first silicon junction transistor

1954

In 1954, physical chemist Morris Tanenbaum fabricated the first silicon junction transistor at Bell Labs, opening the way to silicon's dominance in the electronics industry.

Quantum physics leads to integrated circuit invention

1958

Developments in quantum physics led in turn to the invention of the integrated circuit in 1958, following the 1947 transistor, enabling many components to be fabricated together and transforming modern electronics.

Image source: Integrated circuit

Quantum physics leads to integrated circuit invention

Key Facts

  1. In 1833, Michael Faraday discovered that silver sulfide's conductivity increased with temperature, marking one of the first observations of semiconductor behavior.
  2. In 1947, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell Labs invented the transistor, a breakthrough that earned them the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.
  3. In 1958-1959, Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor independently developed the integrated circuit, allowing multiple components on a single chip.
  4. Gordon Moore's 1965 observation, known as Moore's Law, predicted that the number of transistors on a chip would double roughly every two years, guiding decades of semiconductor innovation.
  5. Silicon became the dominant semiconductor material due to its abundance, stability, and excellent properties for manufacturing, giving rise to 'Silicon Valley' as a global technology hub.

Source

This History of Semiconductors timeline was generated with the help of AI, using information found on the internet.

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