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Opium Wars Timeline

(1839–1842 (First Opium War), 1856–1860 (Second Opium War))

The Opium Wars were two armed conflicts fought between Qing dynasty China and Western powers, primarily Britain, in the mid-19th century. Triggered by China's attempts to suppress the opium trade and assert sovereignty over trade at Canton, the wars resulted in Chinese defeat, unequal treaties such as the Treaty of Nanking, the cession of Hong Kong, opening of treaty ports, and a period of foreign domination known as the 'Century of Humiliation.' Less

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Background and Trade

China enjoys a trade surplus with Europe

1700 - 1800

In the eighteenth century, China enjoyed a trade surplus with Europe, exporting porcelain, silk, and tea in exchange for silver. This favorable balance of trade frustrated Western merchants, particularly the British, who sought goods that could reverse the flow of silver out of their economy.

Image source: Opium Wars

China enjoys a trade surplus with Europe

Qing emperor bans opium

1729

In 1729, the Qing emperor issued an edict making opium illegal. Successive emperors would issue similar edicts in 1799, 1814, and 1831, but imports continued to grow as smugglers and colluding officials in China sought profit from the lucrative trade.

British East India Company expands opium cultivation in Bengal

1750 - 1800

By the late 18th century, the British East India Company (EIC) expanded the cultivation of opium in the Bengal Presidency, selling it to private merchants who transported it to China and covertly sold it on to Chinese smugglers, circumventing Chinese law.

EIC sells 4,000 chests of opium a year

1797

By 1797, the East India Company was selling 4,000 chests of opium a year (each weighing 77 kilograms or 170 pounds) to private merchants, amounting to 308 tonnes (680 thousand pounds) per year flowing into China despite imperial prohibition.

Qing edicts against opium continue

1799 - 1831

Successive Chinese emperors issued edicts making opium illegal in 1799, 1814, and 1831. Despite these repeated prohibitions, opium imports continued to grow as smugglers and colluding Chinese officials sought profit from the illegal trade.

Chinese opium trade soars to 30,000 chests

1833

By 1833, the Chinese opium trade soared to 30,000 chests, that is, 2,310 tonnes (5.1 million pounds) per year. The massive inflow of opium reversed China's trade surplus and caused widespread addiction and silver outflow from the country.

End of EIC monopoly on British trade with China

1834

In 1834, the East India Company's monopoly on British trade with China ceased, and the opium trade burgeoned. Private British merchants, freed from the EIC's restrictions, aggressively expanded the opium trade, further straining relations with the Qing government.

First Opium War

Lin Zexu publishes open letter to Queen Victoria

1839

In 1839, Lin Zexu, the Qing commissioner in Canton, published an open letter to Queen Victoria requesting her cooperation in halting the opium trade. The letter appealed to Britain's moral sense, arguing that Britain profited from a drug it forbade its own people from consuming.

Image source: Lin Zexu

Lin Zexu publishes open letter to Queen Victoria

First Opium War begins

1839 - 1842

The First Opium War broke out in 1839 between China and Britain and was fought over trading rights, including the right of free trade, and Britain's diplomatic status among Chinese officials. The conflict marked the beginning of a period of intense Western pressure on Qing China.

Skirmish in the Kowloon Estuary

Sep 4, 1839

A small skirmish occurred between British and Chinese warships in the Kowloon Estuary on 4 September 1839. This early naval exchange was one of the opening military actions of the First Opium War, foreshadowing the larger conflict to come.

Britain decides to send military expedition to China

May 1840

After almost a year, the British government decided, in May 1840, to send a military expedition to impose reparations for the financial losses experienced by opium traders in Canton and to guarantee future security for the trade.

British naval force arrives off Macao

Jun 21, 1840

On 21 June 1840, a British naval force arrived off Macao and moved to bombard the port of Dinghai. The arrival of the expeditionary force marked the beginning of major military operations in the First Opium War.

China cedes Hong Kong to Britain

1841 - 1997

China ceded sovereignty over Hong Kong to the British in 1841, which maintained control over the region until 1997. The cession of the island became one of the most enduring territorial consequences of the First Opium War.

Treaties and Aftermath

Treaty of Nanking concludes the First Opium War

1842

The war was concluded by the Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) in 1842, the first of the Unequal Treaties between China and Western powers. The treaty imposed indemnities on China, opened treaty ports, and ceded Hong Kong to Britain, marking a profound weakening of Chinese sovereignty.

Image source: Treaty of Nanking

Treaty of Nanking concludes the First Opium War

Treaty ports opened to Western merchants

1842 - 1860

The two conflicts, along with the treaties imposed during the century of humiliation, weakened Chinese sovereignty and forced China to open treaty ports, including Shanghai, to Western merchants. These ports became centers of foreign commerce and influence.

Image source: Treaty ports

Treaty ports opened to Western merchants

Treaty of Whampoa grants France concessions

1844

France secured several of the same concessions from China in the Treaty of Whampoa in 1844. Following Britain's success, other Western powers used the precedent to extract their own privileges from the Qing government, further eroding Chinese sovereignty.

Image source: Treaty of Whampoa

Treaty of Whampoa grants France concessions

Treaty of Tientsin signed

1858

The war resulted in the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin (Tianjin), in which the Chinese government agreed to pay war reparations for the expenses of the recent conflict, open a second group of ten ports to European commerce, legalise the opium trade, and grant foreign traders and missionaries rights to travel within China.

Image source: Treaty of Tientsin

Treaty of Tientsin signed

Century of Humiliation begins

1858

The Treaty of Tientsin led to the era in Chinese history known as the Century of Humiliation, a period during which China suffered repeated defeats, unequal treaties, and foreign encroachment that profoundly shaped Chinese national consciousness.

Image source: Century of humiliation

Century of Humiliation begins

Opium trade legalised in China

1858

As a result of the Second Opium War, China was forced to legalise opium. The legalisation, formalised in the treaties of 1858 and 1860, institutionalised the drug trade that the Qing had long sought to suppress, with devastating social consequences.

Image source: Second Opium War

Opium trade legalised in China

Convention of Peking confirms the treaty

1860

After a second phase of fighting which included the sack of the Old Summer Palace and the occupation of the Forbidden City palace complex in Beijing, the treaty was confirmed by the Convention of Peking in 1860, cementing the terms imposed on China.

Image source: Convention of Peking

Convention of Peking confirms the treaty

Legacy of the Opium Wars

1860 - 2026

The two conflicts waged between the Qing dynasty and the Western powers during the mid-19th century left a lasting legacy, weakening Chinese sovereignty, forcing the opening of China to Western trade, and beginning the Century of Humiliation whose memory continues to shape Chinese politics and identity.

Bronze statues from the Old Summer Palace returned

Dec 2020

As of December 2020, seven of the twelve bronze zodiac statues looted from the Old Summer Palace during the Second Opium War have been found and returned to China, representing a partial restoration of cultural treasures lost during the conflict.

Image source: Old Summer Palace

Bronze statues from the Old Summer Palace returned

Second Opium War

Taiping Rebellion erupts in northern China

1853

In 1853, northern China was convulsed by the Taiping Rebellion, which established its capital at Nanjing. The massive civil war severely weakened the Qing dynasty, leaving it vulnerable to renewed foreign pressure from Britain and France.

Image source: Taiping Rebellion

Taiping Rebellion erupts in northern China

Second Opium War begins

1856 - 1860

The Second Opium War was waged by Britain and France against China from 1856 to 1860, and resulted in China being forced to legalise opium. The conflict further expanded Western privileges in China and deepened the humiliation of the Qing dynasty.

Chinese seizure of the Arrow

Oct 1856

In October 1856, Chinese officials seized the Arrow, a ship claiming British registration, and threw its crew into chains. The incident served as the immediate pretext for Britain to launch military action against China, beginning the Second Opium War.

Chinese resistance to treaty principles

1858 - 1860

Even though the treaties were signed in 1858, there was still Chinese resistance to their principles, including the residence of foreign ambassadors in Beijing. This refusal to fully implement the treaty terms prompted a second phase of fighting.

Sack of the Old Summer Palace

1860

After a second phase of fighting, Anglo-French forces sacked the Old Summer Palace in Beijing, looting and destroying one of China's greatest imperial treasures. The event remains a symbol of foreign aggression in Chinese historical memory.

Occupation of the Forbidden City

1860

The second phase of fighting included the occupation of the Forbidden City palace complex in Beijing, a dramatic demonstration of Western military power at the heart of the Qing empire.

Image source: Forbidden City

Occupation of the Forbidden City

Britain and France appoint new plenipotentiaries

Feb 1860

In February 1860, the British and French imperialist authorities again appointed Elgin and Gros as plenipotentiaries respectively, leading more than 15,000 British troops and about 7,000 French troops to expand the war against China.

Key Facts

  1. The First Opium War began in 1839 after Chinese Commissioner Lin Zexu confiscated and destroyed British opium shipments in Canton to stop the illegal drug trade.
  2. Britain's superior naval technology led to its victory in 1842, resulting in the Treaty of Nanking—China's first 'unequal treaty'—which ceded Hong Kong Island and opened five ports to foreign trade.
  3. The Second Opium War (1856–1860), also called the Arrow War, involved France allied with Britain against China, sparked by disputes over trading rights and diplomatic representation.
  4. In 1860, British and French forces captured Beijing and burned the Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan), forcing China to sign the Treaties of Tianjin and the Convention of Beijing.
  5. The Opium Wars marked the beginning of China's 'Century of Humiliation,' weakening the Qing dynasty and reshaping East Asia through extraterritoriality, indemnities, and legalized opium trade.

Source

This Opium Wars timeline was generated with the help of AI, using information found on the internet.

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